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EFFECT OF CRUDE OIL ON THE CEREBRAL CORTEX AND LIVER OF MALE ALBINO WISTAR RAT
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Human beings are exposed to several thousand of exogenous chemicals used in industrial processes, developmental activities, and also through the food chain (Kumar, 2004). Crude oil is Nigeria’s major foreign exchange earner and is produced exclusively in the Niger-Delta region of Nigeria where unfortunately oil spillages occur frequently, which endanger human health and the ecosystem (Oruambo and Jones, 2007). Interestingly, the folkloric uses of bonny light crude oil (BLCO) by the local population includes dermal application for burns, foot rot and leg ulcers, poisoning and witchcraft, ingestion in the treatment of gastroinstestinal disorders, and reproductive capacity. Although Orisakwe et al. (2000) have reported the analgesic effect of BLCO compared with that of aspirin and justified its folkloric use for pain of leg ulcer and foot rot, its nephrotoxicity based on alterations in serum electrolytes, urea, and creatinine and pathological changes in kidney biopsies have also been reported (Orisakwe et al., 2004b). In addition, BLCO has been reported to be hematotoxic and caused a significant dose-dependent increases in aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels but significantly decreased alkaline phosphatase level compared with the controls (Orisakwe et al., 2005). BLCO has been shown to induce alterations in the liver mitochondria DNA concentrations, cytoplasmic total hydrocarbon, and calcium concentrations in adult guinea pigs exposed by intraperitoneal injection for 2 days (Oruambo and Jones, 2007). BLCO exposure adversely affects male fertility and results in severe impairment of testicular functions, including degenerative changes in seminiferous tubules and Leydig cells (Orisakwe et al., 2004a) and alteration of antioxidant systems in a dose-dependent manner via induction of oxidative stress after oral gavage at 200, 400, and 800 mg kg21 for a week (Farombi et al., 2009)
Toxicant may increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cells directly, after being biotransformed into a reactive intermediate or through redox cycling. The resulting increase in ROS results in oxidative damage and cell injury. Most xenobiotics enter the body through gastrointestinal tract and, after absorption, are transported by the hepatic portal vein to the liver; thus, the liver is the first organ perfused by chemicals that are absorbed in the gut. The liver is particularly vulnerable to toxicity produced by reactive metabolite because it is the major site of xenobiotic metabolism. Cellular toxicity is a function of the balance between the rate of formation of reactive metabolite and the rate of their removal. The primary function of the renal system is the elimination of waste products, derived either from endogenous metabolism or from the metabolism of xenobiotics. Kidney’s sensitivity to chemicals is its ability to concentrate the tubular fluid and, as a consequence, water and salts are removed, to concentrate any chemicals it contains. The biotransformation of chemicals to reactive, and these potentially toxic metabolites, is a key feature of nephrotoxicity.
Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a gas cap over the petroleum, and saline water which being heavier generally floats underneath it. Crude oil may also be found in semi-solid form mixed with sand, as in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it may be referred to as crude bitumen (Glasby, 2006).
Petroleum is used mostly for producing fuel oil and gasoline (petrol), both important “primary energy” sources (Glasby, 2006). About 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas (Robison, 2006).
Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance, crude oil has become the world’s most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 16% not used for energy production is converted into these other materials. Petroleum is found in porous rock formations in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth’s crust. Known reserves of petroleum are typically estimated at around 190 km3 (1.2 trillion (short scale) barrels) without oil sands, or 595 km3 (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands. Utilization is currently around 84 million barrels (13.4×106 m3) per day, or 4.9 km3 per year. Because the energy return over energy invested (EROEI) ratio of oil is constantly falling as petroleum recovery gets more difficult, recoverable oil reserves are significantly less than total oil-in-place. At current utilization levels, and assuming that oil will be used only from reservoirs, known recoverable reserves would be gone around 2039, potentially leading to a global energy crisis. However, there are factors which may extend or reduce this estimate, including the rapidly increasing demand for petroleum in China, India, and other developing nations; new discoveries; energy conservation and use of alternative energy sources and new economically viable exploitation of non–conventional oil sources.
Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity (Robison, 2006).
The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula CnH2n+2 They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture. The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into gasoline (petrol), the ones from nonane (C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel and kerosene (primary component of many types of jet fuel), and the ones from hexadecane upwards into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products. Any shorter hydrocarbons are considered natural gas or natural gas liquids. The cycloalkanes, also known as napthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.
The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula CnHn. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example 2,2,4–trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in gasoline, has a chemical formula of C8H18 and it reacts with oxygen exothermically (Robison, 2006).
The amount of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined in laboratory. The molecules are typically extracted in a solvent, then separated in a gas chromatograph, and finally determined with a suitable detector, such as a flame ionization detector or a mass spectrophotometer (Robison, 2006).
1.2 Statement of the problem
The biochemical disturbances associated with BLCO toxicity are well known. The antioxidants status in humans reflects the dynamic balance between the antioxidant defense and pro-oxidant conditions and has been suggested as a useful tool in estimating the risk of oxidative damage (Nose, 2000; Polidori et al., 2001). We report herein the hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity (hepatorenal toxicity) resulting from oxidative damages and describe the histological features seen in liver and renal biopsies in rats orally administered BLCO.
1.3 Objectives of the study
1. To understand the level of effect of crude oil on cerebral cortex and liver of male abino wistar rat
2. To understand the relationship between the effects of crude oil and health status of albino wistar rat
1.4 Research Questions
1. What is the level of effect of crude oil on cerebral cortex and liver of male abino wistar rat
2. What is the relationship between the effects of crude oil and health status of albino wistar rat
1.5 Research Hypothesis
H0: There is no relationship between the effects of crude oil and health status of albino wistar rat
H1: There is a relationship between the effects of crude oil and health status of albino wistar rat
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